LaTeX syntax for mathematics

Abstract

Docutils supports mathematical content with a "math" directive and role. The input format is LaTeX math syntax[1] with support for literal Unicode symbols.

1 Inline formulas and displayed equations

The math role can be used for inline mathematical expressions: :math:`\psi(r) = \exp(-2r)` will produce $\psi(r)=\exp(-2r)$ . Inside the backtics you can write anything you would write between dollar signs in a LaTeX document. [1]

The math directive is used for displayed equations. It corresponds to an equation* or align* environment in a LaTeX document. If you write:

.. math:: \psi(r) = e^{-2r}

you will get:

\psi(r) = e^{-2r}

A more complex example is the definition of the Fourier transform:

.. math::
   :name: Fourier transform

   (\mathcal{F}f)(y)
    = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}^{\ n}}
      \int_{\mathbb{R}^n} f(x)\,
      e^{-\mathrm{i} y \cdot x} \,\mathrm{d} x.

which is rendered as:

(\mathcal{F}f)(y) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}^{\ n}} \int_{\mathbb{R}^n} f(x)\, e^{-\mathrm{i} y \cdot x} \,\mathrm{d} x.

The :name: option puts a label on the equation that can be linked to by hyperlink references.

Displayed equations can use \\ and & for line shifts and alignments:

.. math::

 a &= (x + y)^2         &  b &= (x - y)^2 \\
   &= x^2 + 2xy + y^2   &    &= x^2 - 2xy + y^2

LaTeX output will wrap it in an align* environment. The result is:

\begin{aligned} a & = (x + y)^2 & b & = (x - y)^2 \\ & = x^2 + 2xy + y^2 & & = x^2 - 2xy + y^2\end{aligned}

The aligned environment can be used as a component in a containing expression. E.g.,

.. math::
  \left.
    \begin{aligned}
      B' & = -\partial\times E,         \\
      E' & = \partial\times B - 4\pi j,
    \end{aligned}
  \right\}
  \qquad \text{Maxwell’s equations}

results in

\left. \begin{aligned} B' & = -\partial\times E \\ E' & = \partial\times B - 4\pi j \end{aligned} \;\right\} \qquad \text{Maxwell’s equations.}

2 Mathematical symbols

The following tables are adapted from the first edition of "The LaTeX Companion" (Goossens, Mittelbach, Samarin) and the AMS Short Math Guide.

2.1 Accents and embellishments

The "narrow" accents are intended for a single-letter base.

$\acute{x}$	\acute{x}	$\dot{t}$	\dot{t}	$\grave{x}$	\grave{x}	$\vec{x}$	\vec{x}
$\bar{v}$	\bar{v}	$\ddot{t}$	\ddot{t}	$\hat{x}$	\hat{x}
$\breve{x}$	\breve{x}	$\dddot{t}$	\dddot{t}	$\mathring{x}$	\mathring{x}
$\check{x}$	\check{x}	$\ddddot{t}$	\ddddot{t}	$\tilde{n}$	\tilde{n}

When adding an accent to an i or j in math, dotless variants can be obtained with \imath and \jmath: $\hat \imath$ , $\vec{\jmath}$ .

For embellishments that span multiple symbols, use:

$\widetilde{gbi}$	\widetilde{gbi}	$\widehat{gbi}$	\widehat{gbi}
$\overline{gbi}$	\overline{gbi}	$\underline{gbi}$	\underline{gbi}
$\overbrace{gbi}$	\overbrace{gbi}	$\underbrace{gbi}$	\underbrace{gbi}
$\overleftarrow{gbi}$	\overleftarrow{gbi}	$\underleftarrow{gbi}$	\underleftarrow{gbi}
$\overrightarrow{gbi}$	\overrightarrow{gbi}	$\underrightarrow{gbi}$	\underrightarrow{gbi}
$\overleftrightarrow{gbi}$	\overleftrightarrow{gbi}	\underleftrightarrow{gbi}	\underleftrightarrow{gbi}

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 167)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\underleftrightarrow{gbi}', rendering as TeX:

  underleftrightarrow{gbi}
                     ^

unexpected "{" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

2.2 Binary operators

$*$	*	$\circledast$	\circledast	$\ominus$	\ominus
$+$	+	$\circledcirc$	\circledcirc	$\oplus$	\oplus
$-$	-	$\circleddash$	\circleddash	$\oslash$	\oslash
$:$	:	$\cup$	\cup	$\otimes$	\otimes
$\Cap$	\Cap	$\curlyvee$	\curlyvee	$\pm$	\pm
$\Cup$	\Cup	$\curlywedge$	\curlywedge	$\rightthreetimes$	\rightthreetimes
$\amalg$	\amalg	$\dagger$	\dagger	$\rtimes$	\rtimes
$\ast$	\ast	$\ddagger$	\ddagger	$\setminus$	\setminus
$\bigcirc$	\bigcirc	$\diamond$	\diamond	$\smallsetminus$	\smallsetminus
$\bigtriangledown$	\bigtriangledown	$\div$	\div	$\sqcap$	\sqcap
$\bigtriangleup$	\bigtriangleup	$\divideontimes$	\divideontimes	$\sqcup$	\sqcup
$\boxdot$	\boxdot	$\dotplus$	\dotplus	$\star$	\star
$\boxminus$	\boxminus	$\doublebarwedge$	\doublebarwedge	$\times$	\times
$\boxplus$	\boxplus	$\gtrdot$	\gtrdot	$\triangleleft$	\triangleleft
$\boxtimes$	\boxtimes	$\intercal$	\intercal	$\triangleright$	\triangleright
$\bullet$	\bullet	$\leftthreetimes$	\leftthreetimes	$\uplus$	\uplus
$\cap$	\cap	$\lessdot$	\lessdot	$\vee$	\vee
$\cdot$	\cdot	$\ltimes$	\ltimes	$\veebar$	\veebar
$\centerdot$	\centerdot	$\mp$	\mp	$\wedge$	\wedge
$\circ$	\circ	$\odot$	\odot	$\wr$	\wr

2.3 Extensible delimiters

Unless you indicate otherwise, delimiters in math formulas remain at the standard size regardless of the height of the enclosed material. To get adaptable sizes, use \left and \right prefixes, for example $g(A,B,Y) = f \left(A,B,X=h^{[X]}(Y)\right)$ or

a_n = \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^n

Use . for "empty" delimiters:

A = \left . \frac{1}{1-n}\, \right |_{n=0}^\infty

See also the commands for fixed delimiter sizes below.

The following symbols extend when used with \left and \right:

2.3.1 Pairing delimiters

$( )$	( )	$\langle \rangle$	\langle \rangle
$[ ]$	[ ]	$\lceil \rceil$	\lceil \rceil
$\{ \}$	\{ \}	$\lfloor \rfloor$	\lfloor \rfloor
$\lvert \rvert$	\lvert \rvert	$\lgroup \rgroup$	\lgroup \rgroup
$\lVert \rVert$	\lVert \rVert	$\lmoustache \rmoustache$	\lmoustache \rmoustache

2.3.2 Nonpairing delimiters

$\|$	\|	$\vert$	\vert	\arrowvert	\arrowvert
$\\|$	\\|	$\Vert$	\Vert	\Arrowvert	\Arrowvert
$/$	/	$\backslash$	\backslash	\bracevert	\bracevert

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 234)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\arrowvert', rendering as TeX:

  \arrowvert
            ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 235)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\Arrowvert', rendering as TeX:

  \Arrowvert
            ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 236)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\bracevert', rendering as TeX:

  \bracevert
            ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

The use of | and \| for pairs of vertical bars may produce incorrect spacing, e.g., |k|=|-k| produces $|k| = |-k|$ and |\sin(x)| produces $|\sin(x)|$ . The pairing delimiters, e.g. $\lvert -k\rvert$ and $\lvert\sin(x)\rvert$ , prevent this problem.

2.4 Extensible vertical arrows

$\uparrow$ \uparrow	$\Uparrow$ \Uparrow
$\downarrow$ \downarrow	$\Downarrow$ \Downarrow
$\updownarrow$ \updownarrow	$\Updownarrow$ \Updownarrow

2.5 Functions (named operators)

$\arccos$	\arccos	$\gcd$	\gcd	$\Pr$	\Pr
$\arcsin$	\arcsin	$\hom$	\hom	\projlim	\projlim
$\arctan$	\arctan	$\inf$	\inf	$\sec$	\sec
$\arg$	\arg	\injlim	\injlim	$\sin$	\sin
$\cos$	\cos	$\ker$	\ker	$\sinh$	\sinh
$\cosh$	\cosh	$\lg$	\lg	$\sup$	\sup
$\cot$	\cot	$\lim$	\lim	$\tan$	\tan
$\coth$	\coth	$\liminf$	\liminf	$\tanh$	\tanh
$\csc$	\csc	$\limsup$	\limsup	\varlimsup	\varlimsup
$\deg$	\deg	$\ln$	\ln	\varliminf	\varliminf
$\det$	\det	$\log$	\log	\varprojlim	\varprojlim
$\dim$	\dim	$\max$	\max	\varinjlim	\varinjlim
$\exp$	\exp	$\min$	\min

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 262)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\projlim', rendering as TeX:

  \projlim
          ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 264)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\injlim', rendering as TeX:

  \injlim
         ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 269)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\varlimsup', rendering as TeX:

  \varlimsup
            ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 270)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\varliminf', rendering as TeX:

  \varliminf
            ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 271)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\varprojlim', rendering as TeX:

  \varprojlim
             ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 272)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\varinjlim', rendering as TeX:

  \varinjlim
            ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

Named operators outside the above list can be typeset with \operatorname{name}, e.g.

\operatorname{sgn}(-3) = -1.

The \DeclareMathOperator command can only be used in the LaTeX preamble.

2.6 Greek letters

Greek letters that have Latin look-alikes are rarely used in math formulas and not supported by LaTeX.

$\Gamma$	\Gamma	$\alpha$	\alpha	$\mu$	\mu	$\omega$	\omega
$\Delta$	\Delta	$\beta$	\beta	$\nu$	\nu	$\digamma$	\digamma
$\Lambda$	\Lambda	$\gamma$	\gamma	$\xi$	\xi	$\varepsilon$	\varepsilon
$\Phi$	\Phi	$\delta$	\delta	$\pi$	\pi	$\varkappa$	\varkappa
$\Pi$	\Pi	$\epsilon$	\epsilon	$\rho$	\rho	$\varphi$	\varphi
$\Psi$	\Psi	$\zeta$	\zeta	$\sigma$	\sigma	$\varpi$	\varpi
$\Sigma$	\Sigma	$\eta$	\eta	$\tau$	\tau	$\varrho$	\varrho
$\Theta$	\Theta	$\theta$	\theta	$\upsilon$	\upsilon	$\varsigma$	\varsigma
$\Upsilon$	\Upsilon	$\iota$	\iota	$\phi$	\phi	$\vartheta$	\vartheta
$\Xi$	\Xi	$\kappa$	\kappa	$\chi$	\chi
$\Omega$	\Omega	$\lambda$	\lambda	$\psi$	\psi

In LaTeX, the default font for capital Greek letters is upright/roman. Italic capital Greek letters can be obtained by loading a package providing the "ISO" math style. They are used by default in MathML.

Individual Greek italic capitals can also be achieved preceding the letter name with var like \varPhi: \varGamma\ \varDelta\ \varLambda\ \varPhi\ \varPi\ \varPsi\ \varSigma\ \varTheta\ \varUpsilon\ \varXi\ \varOmega

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 315)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\varGamma\ \varDelta\ \varLambda\ \varPhi\ \varPi\ \varPsi\ \varSigma\

  \varTheta\ \varUpsilon\ \varXi\ \varOmega', rendering as TeX:
  \varGamma\ \varDelta\ \varLambda\ \varPh

^ unexpected "\\" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

2.7 Letterlike symbols

$\forall$	\forall	$\aleph$	\aleph	$\hbar$	\hbar	$\ell$	\ell
$\complement$	\complement	$\beth$	\beth	$\hslash$	\hslash	$\wp$	\wp
$\exists$	\exists	$\gimel$	\gimel	$\Im$	\Im	$\Re$	\Re
$\Finv$	\Finv	$\daleth$	\daleth	$\imath$	\imath	$\circledR$	\circledR
$\Game$	\Game	$\partial$	\partial	$\jmath$	\jmath	\circledS	\circledS
$\mho$	\mho	$\eth$	\eth	$\Bbbk$	\Bbbk

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 333)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\circledS', rendering as TeX:

  \circledS
           ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

2.8 Math alphabets

The TeX math alphabet macros are intended for mathematical variables where style variations are important semantically. They style letters and numbers with a combination of font attributes (shape, weight, family) --- non-alphanumerical symbols, function names, and mathematical text are left unchanged.

MathML uses the mathvariant style attribute or pre-styled characters from the Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols Unicode block.

command	example	result
\mathrm	s_\mathrm{out}	$s_\mathrm{out}$
\mathbf	\mathbf{r}^2=x^2+y^2	$\mathbf{r}^2=x^2+y^2$
\mathit	\mathit{\sin\Gamma}	$\mathit{\sin\Gamma}$
\mathcal	\mathcal{F}f(x)	$\mathcal{F}f(x)$
\mathbb	\mathbb{R \subset C}	$\mathbb{R \subset C}$
\mathfrak	\mathfrak{a+b}	$\mathfrak{a+b}$
\mathsf	\mathsf x	$\mathsf x$
\mathtt	\mathtt{0.12}	$\mathtt{0.12}$

The set of characters in a given "math alphabet" varies. LaTeX may produce garbage for unsupported characters. Additional math alphabets are defined in LaTeX packages, e.g.,

\mathbfit from isomath allows vector symbols in line with the International Standard [ISO-80000-2]. E.g., \mathbfit{r}^2=x^2+y^2 becomes $\mathbfit{r}^2=x^2+y^2$ .
Several packages, e.g. mathrsfs, define \mathscr that selects a differently shaped "script" alphabet.

The listing below shows the characters supported by Unicode and Docutils with math_output MathML. [2]

default:

${ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz\ \imath \jmath}$ ${\Gamma \Delta \Theta \Lambda \Xi \Pi \Sigma \Upsilon \Phi \Psi \Omega \ \alpha \beta \gamma \delta \varepsilon \zeta \eta \theta \iota \kappa \lambda \mu \nu \xi \pi \rho \varsigma \sigma \tau \upsilon \varphi \chi \psi \omega \ \epsilon \vartheta \phi \varkappa \varrho \varpi Ϝ\digamma \ \partial\nabla }$ ${0123456789}$

mathrm:

$\mathrm{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz\ \imath \jmath}$ $\mathrm{\Gamma \Delta \Theta \Lambda \Xi \Pi \Sigma \Upsilon \Phi \Psi \Omega \ \alpha \beta \gamma \delta \varepsilon \zeta \eta \theta \iota \kappa \lambda \mu \nu \xi \pi \rho \varsigma \sigma \tau \upsilon \varphi \chi \psi \omega \ \epsilon \vartheta \phi \varkappa \varrho \varpi Ϝ\digamma \ \partial\nabla }$ $\mathrm{0123456789}$

mathbf:

$\mathbf{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$ $\mathbf{\Gamma \Delta \Theta \Lambda \Xi \Pi \Sigma \Upsilon \Phi \Psi \Omega \ \alpha \beta \gamma \delta \varepsilon \zeta \eta \theta \iota \kappa \lambda \mu \nu \xi \pi \rho \varsigma \sigma \tau \upsilon \varphi \chi \psi \omega \ \epsilon \vartheta \phi \varkappa \varrho \varpi Ϝ\digamma \ \partial\nabla }$ $\mathbf{0123456789}$

mathit:

$\mathit{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz\ \imath \jmath}$ $\mathit{\Gamma \Delta \Theta \Lambda \Xi \Pi \Sigma \Upsilon \Phi \Psi \Omega \ \alpha \beta \gamma \delta \varepsilon \zeta \eta \theta \iota \kappa \lambda \mu \nu \xi \pi \rho \varsigma \sigma \tau \upsilon \varphi \chi \psi \omega \ \epsilon \vartheta \phi \varkappa \varrho \varpi \ \partial\nabla }$ $\mathit{0123456789}$ [2]

mathbfit:

$\mathbfit{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$ $\mathbfit{\Gamma \Delta \Theta \Lambda \Xi \Pi \Sigma \Upsilon \Phi \Psi \Omega \ \alpha \beta \gamma \delta \varepsilon \zeta \eta \theta \iota \kappa \lambda \mu \nu \xi \pi \rho \varsigma \sigma \tau \upsilon \varphi \chi \psi \omega \ \epsilon \vartheta \phi \varkappa \varrho \varpi \ \partial\nabla }$

mathcal:

$\mathcal{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$

mathscr:

$\mathscr{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$

mathbb:

$\mathbb{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$ $\mathbb{\Gamma \Pi \Sigma \ \gamma \pi }$ $\mathbb{0123456789}$

mathfrak:

$\mathfrak{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$

mathsf:

$\mathsf{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$ $\mathsf{0123456789}$

mathsfit:

$\mathsfit{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$

mathsfbfit:

\mathsfbfit{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz} \mathsfbfit{ΓΔΘΛΞΠΣΥΦΨΩ\ αβγδεζηθικλμνξπρςστυφχψω\ ϵϑϕϰϱϖ\ \partial∇}

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 416)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\mathsfbfit{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}', rendering as TeX:

  \mathsfbfit{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\
             ^

unexpected "{" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 416)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\mathsfbfit{\Gamma \Delta \Theta \Lambda \Xi \Pi \Sigma \Upsilon \Phi \Psi \Omega \ \alpha \beta \gamma \delta \varepsilon \zeta \eta \theta \iota \kappa \lambda \mu \nu \xi \pi \rho \varsigma \sigma \tau \upsilon \varphi \chi \psi \omega \ \epsilon \vartheta \phi \varkappa \varrho \varpi \ \partial\nabla }', rendering as TeX:

  \mathsfbfit{\Gamma \Delta \Theta \Lambda
             ^

unexpected "{" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

mathtt:

$\mathtt{ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ\ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}$ $\mathtt{0123456789}$

In contrast to the math alphabet selectors, \boldsymbol only changes the font weight. It can be used to get a bold version of any mathematical symbol:

V_i x \pm \cos(\alpha) \approx 3\Gamma \quad \forall x\in\mathbb{R}

\boldsymbol{V_i x \pm \cos(\alpha) \approx 3\Gamma \quad \forall x\in\mathbb{R}}

It is usually ill-advised to apply \boldsymbol to more than one symbol at a time.

2.9 Miscellaneous symbols

$\#$	\#	$\clubsuit$	\clubsuit	$\neg$	\neg
$\&$	\&	$\diamondsuit$	\diamondsuit	$\nexists$	\nexists
$\angle$	\angle	$\emptyset$	\emptyset	$\prime$	\prime
$\backprime$	\backprime	$\exists$	\exists	$\sharp$	\sharp
$\bigstar$	\bigstar	$\flat$	\flat	$\spadesuit$	\spadesuit
$\blacklozenge$	\blacklozenge	$\forall$	\forall	$\sphericalangle$	\sphericalangle
$\blacksquare$	\blacksquare	$\heartsuit$	\heartsuit	$\square$	\square
$\blacktriangle$	\blacktriangle	$\infty$	\infty	\surd	\surd
$\blacktriangledown$	\blacktriangledown	$\lozenge$	\lozenge	$\top$	\top
$\bot$	\bot	$\measuredangle$	\measuredangle	$\triangle$	\triangle
\diagdown	\diagdown	$\nabla$	\nabla	$\triangledown$	\triangledown
\diagup	\diagup	$\natural$	\natural	$\varnothing$	\varnothing

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 458)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\surd', rendering as TeX:

  \surd
       ^

unexpected eof expecting letter, "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber", whitespace, "[", "\\not", "!", "'", "''", "'''", "''''", "*", "+", ",", "-", ".", "/", ":", ":=", ";", "<", "=", ">", "?", "@", "~", "\\" or "{"

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 461)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\diagdown', rendering as TeX:

  \diagdown
           ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 462)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\diagup', rendering as TeX:

  \diagup
         ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

2.10 Punctuation

$.$	.	$!$	!	$\vdots$	\vdots
$/$	/	$?$	?	\dotsb	\dotsb
$\|$	\|	$\colon$	\colon [3]	\dotsc	\dotsc
$'$	'	$\cdots$	\cdots	\dotsi	\dotsi
$;$	;	$\ddots$	\ddots	\dotsm	\dotsm
$:$	:	$\ldots$	\ldots	\dotso	\dotso

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 472)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\dotsb', rendering as TeX:

  \dotsb
        ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 473)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\dotsc', rendering as TeX:

  \dotsc
        ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 474)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\dotsi', rendering as TeX:

  \dotsi
        ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 475)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\dotsm', rendering as TeX:

  \dotsm
        ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 476)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\dotso', rendering as TeX:

  \dotso
        ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

2.11 Relation symbols

2.11.1 Arrows

$\circlearrowleft$	\circlearrowleft	$\circlearrowright$	\circlearrowright
$\curvearrowleft$	\curvearrowleft	$\curvearrowright$	\curvearrowright
$\hookleftarrow$	\hookleftarrow	$\hookrightarrow$	\hookrightarrow
$\leftarrow$	\leftarrow	$\rightarrow$	\rightarrow
$\Leftarrow$	\Leftarrow	$\Rightarrow$	\Rightarrow
$\leftarrowtail$	\leftarrowtail	$\rightarrowtail$	\rightarrowtail
$\leftharpoondown$	\leftharpoondown	$\rightharpoondown$	\rightharpoondown
$\leftharpoonup$	\leftharpoonup	$\rightharpoonup$	\rightharpoonup
$\leftleftarrows$	\leftleftarrows	$\rightrightarrows$	\rightrightarrows
$\leftrightarrow$	\leftrightarrow	$\Leftrightarrow$	\Leftrightarrow
$\leftrightarrows$	\leftrightarrows	$\rightleftarrows$	\rightleftarrows
$\leftrightharpoons$	\leftrightharpoons	$\rightleftharpoons$	\rightleftharpoons
$\leftrightsquigarrow$	\leftrightsquigarrow	$\rightsquigarrow$	\rightsquigarrow
$\Lleftarrow$	\Lleftarrow	$\Rrightarrow$	\Rrightarrow
$\longleftarrow$	\longleftarrow	$\longrightarrow$	\longrightarrow
$\Longleftarrow$	\Longleftarrow	$\Longrightarrow$	\Longrightarrow
$\longleftrightarrow$	\longleftrightarrow	$\Longleftrightarrow$	\Longleftrightarrow
$\looparrowleft$	\looparrowleft	$\looparrowright$	\looparrowright
$\Lsh$	\Lsh	$\Rsh$	\Rsh
$\mapsto$	\mapsto	$\longmapsto$	\longmapsto
$\multimap$	\multimap
$\nleftarrow$	\nleftarrow	$\nrightarrow$	\nrightarrow
$\nLeftarrow$	\nLeftarrow	$\nRightarrow$	\nRightarrow
$\nleftrightarrow$	\nleftrightarrow	$\nLeftrightarrow$	\nLeftrightarrow
$\nwarrow$	\nwarrow	$\nearrow$	\nearrow
$\swarrow$	\swarrow	$\searrow$	\searrow
$\twoheadleftarrow$	\twoheadleftarrow	$\twoheadrightarrow$	\twoheadrightarrow
$\upharpoonleft$	\upharpoonleft	$\upharpoonright$	\upharpoonright
$\downharpoonleft$	\downharpoonleft	$\downharpoonright$	\downharpoonright
$\upuparrows$	\upuparrows	$\downdownarrows$	\downdownarrows

Synonyms: $\gets$ \gets, $\to$ \to, $\restriction$ \restriction.

2.11.2 Comparison

$<$	<	$\geq$	\geq	$\ll$	\ll	$\prec$	\prec
$=$	=	$\geqq$	\geqq	$\lll$	\lll	$\precapprox$	\precapprox
$>$	>	$\geqslant$	\geqslant	$\lnapprox$	\lnapprox	$\preccurlyeq$	\preccurlyeq
$\approx$	\approx	$\gg$	\gg	$\lneq$	\lneq	$\preceq$	\preceq
$\approxeq$	\approxeq	$\ggg$	\ggg	$\lneqq$	\lneqq	$\precnapprox$	\precnapprox
$\asymp$	\asymp	$\gnapprox$	\gnapprox	$\lnsim$	\lnsim	$\precneqq$	\precneqq
$\backsim$	\backsim	$\gneq$	\gneq	$\ncong$	\ncong	$\precnsim$	\precnsim
$\backsimeq$	\backsimeq	$\gneqq$	\gneqq	$\neq$	\neq	$\precsim$	\precsim
$\bumpeq$	\bumpeq	$\gnsim$	\gnsim	$\ngeq$	\ngeq	$\risingdotseq$	\risingdotseq
$\Bumpeq$	\Bumpeq	$\gtrapprox$	\gtrapprox	\ngeqq	\ngeqq	$\sim$	\sim
$\circeq$	\circeq	$\gtreqless$	\gtreqless	$\ngeqslant$	\ngeqslant	$\simeq$	\simeq
$\cong$	\cong	$\gtreqqless$	\gtreqqless	$\ngtr$	\ngtr	$\succ$	\succ
$\curlyeqprec$	\curlyeqprec	$\gtrless$	\gtrless	$\nleq$	\nleq	$\succapprox$	\succapprox
$\curlyeqsucc$	\curlyeqsucc	$\gtrsim$	\gtrsim	\nleqq	\nleqq	$\succcurlyeq$	\succcurlyeq
$\doteq$	\doteq	$\leq$	\leq	$\nleqslant$	\nleqslant	$\succeq$	\succeq
$\doteqdot$	\doteqdot	$\leqq$	\leqq	$\nless$	\nless	$\succnapprox$	\succnapprox
$\eqcirc$	\eqcirc	$\leqslant$	\leqslant	$\nprec$	\nprec	$\succneqq$	\succneqq
$\eqsim$	\eqsim	$\lessapprox$	\lessapprox	$\npreceq$	\npreceq	$\succnsim$	\succnsim
$\eqslantgtr$	\eqslantgtr	$\lesseqgtr$	\lesseqgtr	$\nsim$	\nsim	$\succsim$	\succsim
$\eqslantless$	\eqslantless	$\lesseqqgtr$	\lesseqqgtr	$\nsucc$	\nsucc	\thickapprox	\thickapprox
$\equiv$	\equiv	$\lessgtr$	\lessgtr	$\nsucceq$	\nsucceq	\thicksim	\thicksim
$\fallingdotseq$	\fallingdotseq	$\lesssim$	\lesssim			$\triangleq$	\triangleq

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 540)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\ngeqq', rendering as TeX:

  \ngeqq
        ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 544)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\nleqq', rendering as TeX:

  \nleqq
        ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 550)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\thickapprox', rendering as TeX:

  \thickapprox
              ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 551)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\thicksim', rendering as TeX:

  \thicksim
           ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

The commands \lvertneqq and \gvertneqq are not supported with MathML output, as there is no corresponding Unicode character.

Synonyms: $\ne$ \ne, $\le$ \le, $\ge$ \ge, $\Doteq$ \Doteq, \llless \llless, \gggtr \gggtr.

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 558)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\llless', rendering as TeX:

  \llless
         ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 558)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\gggtr', rendering as TeX:

  \gggtr
        ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

Symbols can be negated prepending \not, e.g. \not= \not=, \not\equiv \not\equiv, \not\gtrless \not\gtrless, \not\lessgtr \not\lessgtr.

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 561)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\not=', rendering as TeX:

  \not=
       ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 561)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\not\equiv', rendering as TeX:

  \not\equiv
            ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 561)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\not\gtrless', rendering as TeX:

  \not\gtrless
              ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 561)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\not\lessgtr', rendering as TeX:

  \not\lessgtr
              ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

2.11.3 Miscellaneous relations

$\backepsilon$	\backepsilon	$\ntrianglelefteq$	\ntrianglelefteq	$\subseteq$	\subseteq
$\because$	\because	$\ntriangleright$	\ntriangleright	$\subseteqq$	\subseteqq
$\between$	\between	$\ntrianglerighteq$	\ntrianglerighteq	$\subsetneq$	\subsetneq
$\blacktriangleleft$	\blacktriangleleft	$\nvdash$	\nvdash	$\subsetneqq$	\subsetneqq
$\blacktriangleright$	\blacktriangleright	$\nVdash$	\nVdash	$\supset$	\supset
$\bowtie$	\bowtie	$\nvDash$	\nvDash	$\Supset$	\Supset
$\dashv$	\dashv	$\nVDash$	\nVDash	$\supseteq$	\supseteq
$\frown$	\frown	$\parallel$	\parallel	$\supseteqq$	\supseteqq
$\in$	\in	$\perp$	\perp	$\supsetneq$	\supsetneq
$\mid$	\mid	$\pitchfork$	\pitchfork	$\supsetneqq$	\supsetneqq
$\models$	\models	$\propto$	\propto	$\therefore$	\therefore
$\ni$	\ni	\shortmid	\shortmid	$\trianglelefteq$	\trianglelefteq
$\nmid$	\nmid	\shortparallel	\shortparallel	$\trianglerighteq$	\trianglerighteq
$\notin$	\notin	$\smallfrown$	\smallfrown	$\varpropto$	\varpropto
$\nparallel$	\nparallel	$\smallsmile$	\smallsmile	$\vartriangle$	\vartriangle
\nshortmid	\nshortmid	$\smile$	\smile	$\vartriangleleft$	\vartriangleleft
\nshortparallel	\nshortparallel	$\sqsubset$	\sqsubset	$\vartriangleright$	\vartriangleright
$\nsubseteq$	\nsubseteq	$\sqsubseteq$	\sqsubseteq	$\vdash$	\vdash
\nsubseteqq	\nsubseteqq	$\sqsupset$	\sqsupset	$\Vdash$	\Vdash
$\nsupseteq$	\nsupseteq	$\sqsupseteq$	\sqsupseteq	$\vDash$	\vDash
\nsupseteqq	\nsupseteqq	$\subset$	\subset	$\Vvdash$	\Vvdash
$\ntriangleleft$	\ntriangleleft	$\Subset$	\Subset

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 581)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\shortmid', rendering as TeX:

  \shortmid
           ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 582)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\shortparallel', rendering as TeX:

  \shortparallel
                ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 585)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\nshortmid', rendering as TeX:

  \nshortmid
            ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 586)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\nshortparallel', rendering as TeX:

  \nshortparallel
                 ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 588)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\nsubseteqq', rendering as TeX:

  \nsubseteqq
             ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 590)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\nsupseteqq', rendering as TeX:

  \nsupseteqq
             ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

Synonyms: $\owns$ \owns.

Symbols can be negated prepending \not, e.g. $\not\in$ \not\in, \not\ni \not\ni.

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 596)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\not\ni', rendering as TeX:

  \not\ni
         ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

The commands \varsubsetneq, \varsubsetneqq, \varsupsetneq, and \varsupsetneqq are not supported with MathML output as there is no corresponding Unicode character.

2.12 Variable-sized operators

$\sum$ \sum	$\prod$ \prod	$\bigcap$ \bigcap	$\bigodot$ \bigodot
$\int$ \int	$\coprod$ \coprod	$\bigcup$ \bigcup	$\bigoplus$ \bigoplus
$\oint$ \oint	$\bigwedge$ \bigwedge	$\biguplus$ \biguplus	$\bigotimes$ \bigotimes
\smallint \smallint	$\bigvee$ \bigvee	$\bigsqcup$ \bigsqcup

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 612)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\smallint', rendering as TeX:

  \smallint
           ^

unexpected eof expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

Larger symbols are used in displayed formulas, sum-like symbols have indices above/below the symbol:

\sum_{n=1}^N a_n \qquad \int_0^1f(x)\,dx \qquad \prod_{i=1}^{10} b_i \ldots

3 Notations

3.1 Top and bottom embellishments

See Accents and embellishments.

3.2 Extensible arrows

xleftarrow and xrightarrow produce arrows that extend automatically to accommodate unusually wide subscripts or superscripts. These commands take one optional argument (the subscript) and one mandatory argument (the superscript, possibly empty):

A \xleftarrow{n+\mu-1} B \xrightarrow[T]{n\pm i-1} C

results in

A \xleftarrow{n+\mu-1} B \xrightarrow[T]{n\pm i-1} C

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 644)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math 'A \xleftarrow{n+\mu-1} B \xrightarrow[T]{n\pm i-1} C', rendering as TeX:

  A \xleftarrow{n+\mu-1} B \xrightarrow[T]
               ^

unexpected "{" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

3.3 Affixing symbols to other symbols

In addition to the standard accents and embellishments, other symbols can be placed above or below a base symbol with the \overset and \underset commands. The symbol is set in "scriptstyle" (smaller font size). For example, writing \overset{*}{X} becomes $\overset{*}{X}$ and \underset{+}{M} becomes $\underset{+}{M}$ .

3.4 Matrices

The matrix and cases environments can also contain \\ and &:

.. math::
   \left ( \begin{matrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{matrix}\right)

Result:

\left ( \begin{matrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{matrix} \right)

The environments pmatrix, bmatrix, Bmatrix, vmatrix, and Vmatrix have (respectively) ( ), [ ], { }, | |, and $\Vert\ \Vert$ delimiters built in, e.g.

\begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{pmatrix} \qquad \begin{bmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{bmatrix} \qquad \begin{Vmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{Vmatrix}

To produce a small matrix suitable for use in text, there is a smallmatrix environment $\bigl(\begin{smallmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{smallmatrix}\bigr)$ that comes closer to fitting within a single text line than a normal matrix.

For piecewise function definitions there is a cases environment:

\mathrm{sgn}(x) = \begin{cases} -1 & x<0\\ \phantom{-}1 & x>0 \end{cases}

3.5 Spacing commands

Horizontal spacing of elements can be controlled with the following commands:

$3\qquad 4$		3\qquad 4	= 2em
$3\quad 4$		3\quad 4	= 1em
$3~4$	3~4	3\nobreakspace 4
$3\ 4$	3\ 4		escaped space
$3\;4$	3\;4	3\thickspace 4
$3\:4$	3\:4	3\medspace 4
$3\,4$	3\,4	3\thinspace 4
$3 4$	3 4		regular space [4]
$3\!4$	3\!4	3\negthinspace 4	negative space [5]
3\negmedspace 4		3\negmedspace 4
3\negthickspace 4		3\negthickspace 4
3\hspace{1ex}4		3\hspace{1ex}4	custom length
$3\mspace{20mu}4$		3\mspace{20mu}4	custom length [6]

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 712)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '3\negmedspace 4', rendering as TeX:

  3\negmedspace 4
                ^

unexpected "4" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 713)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '3\negthickspace 4', rendering as TeX:

  3\negthickspace 4
                  ^

unexpected "4" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 714)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '3\hspace{1ex}4', rendering as TeX:

  3\hspace{1ex}4
            ^

unexpected "x" expecting "em"

There are also three commands that leave a space equal to the height and width of its argument. For example \phantom{XXX} results in space as wide and high as three X’s:

\frac{\phantom{XXX}+1}{XXX-1}

The commands \hphantom and \vphantom insert space with the width or height of the argument. They are not supported with math_output MathML.

3.6 Modular arithmetic and modulo operation

The commands \bmod, \pmod, \mod, and \pod deal with the special spacing conventions of the “mod” notation. [7]

command	example	result
\bmod	\gcd(n,m \bmod n)	$\gcd(n,m \bmod n)$
\pmod	x\equiv y \pmod b	x\equiv y \pmod b
\mod	x\equiv y \mod c	$x\equiv y \mod c$
\pod	x\equiv y \pod d	x\equiv y \pod d
	\operatorname{mod}(m,n)	$\operatorname{mod}(m,n)$

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 745)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math 'x\equiv y \pmod b', rendering as TeX:

  x\equiv y \pmod b
                  ^

unexpected "b" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 747)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math 'x\equiv y \pod d', rendering as TeX:

  x\equiv y \pod d
                 ^

unexpected "d" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

3.7 Roots

command	example	result
\sqrt	\sqrt{x^2-1}	$\sqrt{x^2-1}$
	\sqrt[3n]{x^2-1}	$\sqrt[3n]{x^2-1}$
	\sqrt\frac{1}{2}	\sqrt\frac{1}{2}

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 767)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\sqrt\frac{1}{2}', rendering as TeX:

  \sqrt\frac{1}{2}
            ^

unexpected "{" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

3.8 Boxed formulas

The command \boxed puts a box around its argument:

\boxed{\eta \leq C(\delta(\eta) +\Lambda_M(0,\delta))}

4 Fractions and related constructions

The \frac command takes two ar guments, numerator and denominator, and typesets them in normal fraction form. For example, U = \frac{R}{I} produces $U = \frac{R}{I}$ . Use \dfrac or \tfrac to force text style and display style respectively.

\frac{x+1}{x-1} \quad \dfrac{x+1}{x-1} \quad \tfrac{x+1}{x-1}

and in text: $\frac{x+1}{x-1}$ , $\dfrac{x+1}{x-1}$ , $\tfrac{x+1}{x-1}$ .

For binomial expressions such as $\binom{n}{k}$ , there are \binom, \dbinom and \tbinom commands:

2^k-\binom{k}{1}2^{k-1}+\binom{k}{2}2^{k-2}

prints

2^k-\binom{k}{1}2^{k-1}+\binom{k}{2}2^{k-2}

The \cfrac command for continued fractions uses displaystyle and padding for sub-fractions:

\frac{\pi}{4} = 1 + \cfrac{1^2}{
                    2 + \cfrac{3^2}{
                        2 + \cfrac{5^2}{
                            2 + \cfrac{7^2}{2 + \cdots}
                    }}}
\qquad \text{vs.}\qquad
\frac{\pi}{4} = 1 + \frac{1^2}{
                    2 + \frac{3^2}{
                        2 + \frac{5^2}{
                            2 + \frac{7^2}{2 + \cdots}
                    }}}

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 805)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\frac{\pi}{4} = 1 + \cfrac{1^2}{

                      2 + \cfrac{3^2}{
                          2 + \cfrac{5^2}{

2 + \cfrac{7^2}{2 + \cdots} }}} \qquad \text{vs.}\qquad \frac{\pi}{4} = 1 + \frac{1^2}{ 2 + \frac{3^2}{ 2 + \frac{5^2}{ 2 + \frac{7^2}{2 + \cdots} }}}', rendering as TeX: pi}{4} = 1 + \cfrac{1^2}{ ^ unexpected "{" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

The optional argument [l] or [r] for left or right placement of the numerator is not supported by MathML Core:

\cfrac[l]{x}{x-1} \quad
\cfrac{x}{x-1}    \quad
\cfrac[r]{x}{x-1}

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 820)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\cfrac[l]{x}{x-1} \quad

  \cfrac{x}{x-1}    \quad
  \cfrac[r]{x}{x-1}', rendering as TeX:

\cfrac[l]{x}{x-1} \quad ^ unexpected "[" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

5 Delimiter sizes

Besides the automatic scaling of extensible delimiters with \left and \right, there are four commands to manually select delimiters of fixed size:

Sizing	no	\left	\bigl	\Bigl	\biggl	\Biggl
command		\right	\bigr	\Bigr	\biggr	\Biggr
Result	$\displaystyle (b) (\frac{c}{d})$	$\displaystyle \left(b\right) \left(\frac{c} {d}\right)$	$\displaystyle \bigl(b\bigr) \bigl(\frac{c} {d}\bigr)$	\displaystyle \Bigl(b\Bigr) \Bigl(\frac{c} {d}\Bigr)	$\displaystyle \biggl(b\biggr) \biggl(\frac{c} {d}\biggr)$	$\displaystyle \Biggl(b\Biggr) \Biggl(\frac{c} {d}\Biggr)$

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 840)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\displaystyle

  \Bigl(b\Bigr)
  \Bigl(\frac{c}

{d}\Bigr)', rendering as TeX: \Bigl(b\Bigr) ^ unexpected "(" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

There are two or three situations where the delimiter size is commonly adjusted using these commands:

The first kind of adjustment is done for cumulative operators with limits, such as summation signs. With \left and \right the delimiters usually turn out larger than necessary, and using the Big or bigg sizes instead gives better results:

\left[\sum_i a_i\left\lvert\sum_j x_{ij}\right\rvert^p\right]^{1/p}
\text{ versus }
\biggl[\sum_i a_i\Bigl\lvert\sum_j x_{ij}\Bigr\rvert^p\biggr]^{1/p}

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 854)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\left[\sum_i a_i\left\lvert\sum_j x_{ij}\right\rvert^p\right]^{1/p}

  \text{ versus }
  \biggl[\sum_i a_i\Bigl\lvert\sum_j x_{ij}\Bigr\rvert^p\biggr]^{1/p}', rendering as TeX:

ggl[\sum_i a_i\Bigl\lvert\sum_j x_{ij}\B ^ unexpected "\\" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

The second kind of situation is clustered pairs of delimiters, where left and right make them all the same size (because that is adequate to cover the encompassed material), but what you really want is to make some of the delimiters slightly larger to make the nesting easier to see.

\left((a_1 b_1) - (a_2 b_2)\right) \left((a_2 b_1) + (a_1 b_2)\right) \quad\text{versus}\quad \bigl((a_1 b_1) - (a_2 b_2)\bigr) \bigl((a_2 b_1) + (a_1 b_2)\bigr)

The third kind of situation is a slightly oversize object in running text, such as $\left|\frac{b'}{d'}\right|$ where the delimiters produced by \left and \right cause too much line spreading. [8] In that case \bigl and \bigr can be used to produce delimiters that are larger than the base size but still able to fit within the normal line spacing: $\bigl|\frac{b'}{d'}\bigr|$ .

6 Text

The main use of the command \text is for words or phrases in a display. It is similar to \mbox in its effects but, unlike \mbox, automatically produces subscript-size text if used in a subscript, k_{\text{B}}T becomes $k_{\text{B}}T$ .

Whitespace is kept inside the argument:

f_{[x_{i-1},x_i]} \text{ is monotonic for } i = 1,\,\ldots ,\,c+1

The text may contain math commands wrapped in $ signs, e.g.

(-1)^{n_i} = \begin{cases} -1 \quad \text{if $n_i$ is odd,} \\ +1 \quad \text{if $n_i$ is even.} \end{cases}

7 Integrals and sums

The limits on integrals, sums, and similar symbols are placed either to the side of or above and below the base symbol, depending on convention and context. In inline formulas and fractions, the limits on sums, and similar symbols like

\lim_{n\to\infty} \sum_1^n \frac{1}{n}

move to index positions: $\lim_{n\to\infty} \sum_1^n \frac{1}{n}$ .

7.1 Altering the placement of limits

The commands \intop and \ointop produce integral signs with limits as in sums and similar: \intop_0^1, \ointop_c and

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 921)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\intop_0^1', rendering as TeX:

  \intop_0^1
        ^

unexpected "_" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 921)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\ointop_c', rendering as TeX:

  \ointop_c
         ^

unexpected "_" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

\intop_0^1 \quad \ointop_c
   \quad \text{vs.} \quad
\int^1_0   \quad \oint_c

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 924)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\intop_0^1 \quad \ointop_c

     \quad \text{vs.} \quad
  \int^1_0   \quad \oint_c', rendering as TeX:

\intop_0^1 \quad \ointop_c ^ unexpected "_" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

The commands \limits and \nolimits override the default placement of the limits for any operator; \displaylimits forces standard positioning as for the sum command. They should follow immediately after the operator to which they apply.

Compare the same term with default positions, \limits, and \nolimits in inline and display mode: $\lim_{x\to0}f(x)$ , $\lim\limits_{x\to0}f(x)$ , $\lim\nolimits_{x\to0}f(x)$ , vs.

\lim_{x\to0}f(x), \quad \lim\limits_{x\to0}f(x) \quad \lim\nolimits_{x\to0}f(x).

8 Changing the size of elements in a formula

The declarations [9] \displaystyle, \textstyle, \scriptstyle, and \scriptscriptstyle, select a symbol size and spacing that would be applied in display math, inline math, first-order subscript, or second-order subscript, respectively even when the current context would normally yield some other size.

For example :math:`\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{1}{n}` is printed as $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{1}{n}$ rather than $\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{1}{n}$ and

\frac{\scriptstyle\sum_{n > 0} z^n}
{\displaystyle\prod_{1\leq k\leq n} (1-q^k)}

yields

\frac{\scriptstyle\sum_{n > 0} z^n}
{\displaystyle\prod_{1\leq k\leq n} (1-q^k)}
\text{ instead of the default }
\frac{\sum_{n > 0} z^n}
{\prod_{1\leq k\leq n} (1-q^k)}.

System Message: WARNING/2 (../../../docs/ref/rst/mathematics.rst, line 964)

TeX to MathML converter `pandoc` failed:

[WARNING] Could not convert TeX math '\frac{\scriptstyle\sum_{n > 0} z^n}

  {\displaystyle\prod_{1\leq k\leq n} (1-q^k)}
  \text{ instead of the default }

\frac{\sum_{n > 0} z^n} {\prod_{1\leq k\leq n} (1-q^k)}.', rendering as TeX: \frac{\scriptstyle\sum_{n > 0} z^n} ^ unexpected "\\" expecting "%", "\\label", "\\nonumber" or whitespace

[ISO-80000-2]

Quantities and units – Part 2: Mathematical signs and symbols to be used in the natural sciences and technology: http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=31887.